Class 12 History ( Themes in Indian History-I) Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation

Key Concept: Comparative Analysis, Multi-Crop Systems

d) It highlights their practice of cultivating diverse crops to optimize yield.

[Solution Description] The finding of two sets of furrows at Kalibangan implies that Harappans practiced growing multiple crops either simultaneously or sequentially, ensuring diversity and resilience in their agricultural system. This contrasts with some Mesopotamian practices where monoculture was more common due to environmental constraints. By employing multi-cropping, Harappans could maximize resource usage and mitigate risks associated with crop failure, showcasing their adaptive strategies in farming.

Key Concept: Transportation Methods

c) Boats

[Solution Description] In the Harappan civilization, riverine routes were crucial for transportation due to the extensive network of rivers. Boats were widely utilized along these waterways to move goods efficiently, complementing the use of bullock carts on land routes.

Key Concept: Stratigraphy Basics

a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.

[Solution Description]

In archaeology, stratigraphy is used to understand the layering of earth over time. When excavating, the deeper one digs, the older the layers typically are because new materials get deposited on top of older ones over time. This principle helps archaeologists date artefacts based on their layer, confirming both the Assertion and Reason are true, with Reason explaining why the Assertion is correct.

Key Concept: Real-World Application, Synthesis of Information

c) Indicates no significant religious influence on governance

[Solution Description] In Mesopotamia, “priest-kings” fused political and religious roles, suggesting that religious structures were central to governance. If similar patterns—such as religiously significant artefacts found in governance-related areas—were evident in Harappa, it could imply that religion played a key role in its governance. Conversely, a lack of such evidence might suggest that religion was not intertwined with governance, unlike Mesopotamia.

Key Concept: Brick Standardization

b) Length twice the height

[Solution Description] The standardization of bricks involved ensuring consistent proportions for ease in construction and uniformity. At Mohenjodaro, the bricks had a well-known ratio of length to width to height, which typically was length twice the height. This precise ratio helped in maintaining structural consistency across buildings.

Key Concept: Basic Concepts

a) Direct evidence

[Solution Description] The syllabus mentions that there is a “lack of direct evidence” for palaces or kings in Harappan society. This means that archaeologists have not found conclusive material evidence such as structures that can be directly identified as palaces, or artifacts indicating individual rulers with absolute authority.

Key Concept: International Collaboration

d) Increased international collaboration

[Solution Description] International collaboration has played a significant role in advancing Harappan archaeology since the 1980s. It has facilitated the sharing of knowledge, techniques, and resources among various countries, leading to more comprehensive research outcomes.

Key Concept: Material Evidence

c) Stone

[Solution Description] Stone is a durable material that does not decompose easily, making it more likely to survive over long periods at archaeological sites compared to organic materials like wood or leather.

Key Concept: Subsistence Strategy Analysis

b) Lapis lazuli

[Solution Description] Lapis lazuli is a semi-precious stone which was not locally available to the Harappans and thus was procured from regions like Afghanistan. Its procurement indicates trade networks and value attached to this material in their craft production.

Key Concept: Drainage Cleaning

c) Sumps at intervals

[Solution Description] Long drainage channels in Harappan cities had sumps at intervals which allowed solid material to settle while enabling easier cleaning of these channels by providing access points.

Key Concept: Archaeological Techniques

c) Wheeler-Kenyon method

[Solution Description] Stratigraphy has been pivotal in archaeology as it involves studying layers of soil or rocks to date artefacts. R.E.M. Wheeler improved upon these techniques by introducing a systematic method known as the Wheeler-Kenyon method, enhancing accuracy in dating and interpretation of artefacts through well-defined stratigraphic layers.

Key Concept: Burial Variations

c) Reflection of belief in an afterlife

[Solution Description]

The presence of pottery and tools in graves can suggest that these items were considered valuable for use in an afterlife or represented status symbols, indicating beliefs in life beyond death. This also suggests funerary practices emphasizing remembrance of the deceased’s social role and status.

Key Concept: Genetic and Cultural Correlation, Advanced Archaeological Analysis

c) It supports gradual cultural adaptation without large-scale displacement.

[Solution Description] Genetic continuity implies that despite cultural transformations evident in archaeological findings, such as the disappearance of distinctive artefacts like seals and pottery, there was no significant influx of foreign populations. The Harappans likely adapted to changing conditions (e.g., climate change or resource depletion) rather than being displaced by external forces.

Key Concept: Privacy in Architecture

b) No windows on ground-level walls

[Solution Description]

In the residential architecture of Mohenjodaro, the absence of windows on ground-level walls suggests a concern for privacy. This design choice would prevent outsiders from directly looking into homes, thereby maintaining the privacy of its inhabitants.

Key Concept: Technological Understanding, Archaeological Evidence

b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is NOT the correct explanation of Assertion.

[Solution Description] The assertion is examining the technological prowess of the Harappans in using both binary and decimal systems for different denominations of weights, showcasing an advanced understanding of mathematical concepts. The reason provides evidence supporting this through consistent archaeological discoveries across various sites, indicating widespread application. Both statements are true, but the reason merely supports the assertion without directly explaining the integration of the binary-decimal system.

Key Concept: Chemical Analysis, Long-Distance Trade

c) It provides evidence of raw material sourcing from Oman, pointing to trade links.

[Solution Description]

The presence of nickel traces in both Omani copper and Harappan artifacts suggests a commonality or direct link in their source materials, indicating that Harappans imported copper from Oman. This chemical fingerprinting technique strengthens the evidence for long-distance trade between these regions as it shows sourcing and subsequent technological processes influenced by this exchange.

Key Concept: Procurement Strategies

a) Sending trading expeditions to Shortughai

[Solution Description]

The Harappans established settlements and conducted expeditions to acquire valuable materials from distant regions. Lapis lazuli, primarily found in regions like Afghanistan, would have been procured through trade or expeditions.

Key Concept: Seal Motifs

b) To convey meaning to non-literate people

[Solution Description] Animal motifs on Harappan seals are believed to have been used for various purposes, including indicating the owner’s profession or status, serving religious or symbolic roles, or being a form of decoration. However, given the context of trade and communication in Harappan society, these motifs were most likely intended to convey specific meanings or messages that could be understood by others, even if they were non-literate.

Key Concept: Key Sites

d) Kolkata

[Solution Description] Major cities during the Mature Harappan Phase include Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Dholavira. Kolkata is not mentioned in the syllabus as a major center for this phase.

Key Concept: Historical Misconceptions, Real-world Application

a) Due to his emphasis on pilgrim accounts, overlooking pre-existing civilizations; modern archaeology revealed Harappans as older.

[Solution Description]

Cunningham’s belief stemmed from a selective interpretation of evidence, heavily influenced by his focus on Early Historic periods and reliance on Chinese pilgrims’ accounts, which overlooked the significance of earlier cultures, including the Harappan. Modern archaeology, through discoveries like those in the Indus Valley, showcased advanced urban planning predating the Ganga cities, thereby revolutionizing perspectives on India’s ancient past. This shift was facilitated by integrating scientific methods and interdisciplinary studies into archaeological practice.

Key Concept: Artefact Function

c) Personal adornment

[Solution Description]

Harappan beads, crafted from materials like terracotta, stone, and shell, were primarily used as personal ornaments. They reflect the artistic skills and aesthetic values of the Harappan people.

Key Concept: Tool Usage

b) Stone and metal

[Solution Description] Historical findings at Harappan sites reveal the use of stone blades and metal tools for harvesting purposes. These materials were typically utilized by ancient civilizations for crafting effective harvesting implements.

Key Concept: Comparative Analysis, Indirect Evidence Application

d) They suggest possible functions based on shape and wear

[Solution Description] Modern tools provide a comparative framework to hypothesize the possible uses of Harappan stone artefacts. By analyzing the design and wear patterns on contemporary tools, researchers can infer how similar ancient artefacts might have been utilized for specific tasks such as hunting or crafting. This approach allows archaeologists to fill gaps where direct evidence is unavailable.

Key Concept: Material Culture

c) Simpler pottery designs

[Solution Description] In the transition from urban to rural life during the Late Harappan period, evidence shows fewer materials used in construction and deteriorated house building techniques. This indicates a shift towards less complex and smaller-scale societal organization, reflecting reduced emphasis on urban infrastructure.

Key Concept: Weight System

b) Chert

[Solution Description] Harappan weights were typically made from chert, a durable stone material that allowed for consistent and uniform weight measures. They followed binary and decimal systems, indicating advanced understanding of measurement.

Key Concept: Craft Centers

c) Chanhudaro

[Solution Description] Chanhudaro was a significant site known for its specialized bead-making crafts during the Harappan era, indicating it as a center for such production activities.

Key Concept: Afterlife Beliefs

c) Use of these items in the afterlife

[Solution Description] The presence of pottery and ornaments in Harappan graves indicates that they believed these items would be useful in the afterlife. This reflects a belief that life continues in some form beyond death.

Key Concept: Associated Structures

c) Smaller building with bathrooms

[Solution Description]

A smaller building with bathrooms was connected to the sophisticated drainage system associated with the Great Bath. This setup ensured efficient waste removal and maintained hygiene within the public bathing complex.

Key Concept: Water Management

c) Irrigation

[Solution Description] The presence of water reservoirs at Dholavira suggests that the Harappans practiced irrigation to support agriculture, as these structures were likely used to store water for agricultural purposes.

Key Concept: Sea Routes

b) Sea routes

[Solution Description] Communication between Harappans and distant lands such as Oman, Bahrain, or Mesopotamia was likely by sea. This is supported by depictions of ships and boats on seals and references in Mesopotamian texts.

Key Concept: Labor Mobilization

b) 36,000

[Solution Description]

To estimate the number of person-days required, consider the size and complexity of the Great Bath, a large public water tank. If it took approximately 200 workers about 180 days to complete, then:

Number of person-days = Number of workers $\times$ Number of days

$\text{Number of person-days} = 200 \times 180 = 36000$

Therefore, the construction required approximately 36,000 person-days.

Key Concept: Script Characteristics

c) 375-400 signs

[Solution Description] The Harappan script is noted to have approximately 375-400 signs. This indicates that it is not an alphabetical script but likely a logo-syllabic script.

Key Concept: Artefact Function

a) Distinguishing between decorative and functional use

[Solution Description] Classifying artefacts like seals depicting mythical creatures presents methodological challenges as these artefacts could serve multiple purposes. Seals may indicate ownership, represent religious symbols, or depict mythological narratives. Determining the primary function of a seal requires significant interpretative work, considering both stylistic elements and archaeological context. These complexities can lead to a range of hypotheses about the artefact’s original role, illustrating the difficulty in arriving at definitive classifications without broader supporting evidence.

Key Concept: Material Complexity

c) Crafting them required advanced skills and techniques

[Solution Description]

Shells were valued in the Harappan culture because they required complex technology and skill to craft into ornaments. Their rarity and the craftsmanship needed added to their value as luxury items.

Key Concept: Transportation Methods

d) Via riverine routes

[Solution Description] Given the weight and bulk of raw steatite, riverine routes would have been more efficient compared to land routes. This is because water transport allows for larger quantities to be moved with less effort than overland methods at that time.

Key Concept: Subsistence Practices

c) Rice

[Solution Description] Archaeo-botanical studies indicate that wheat, barley, and legumes were significant components of the Harappan diet. Evidence for rice is minimal during the main period of Harappan civilization, suggesting it was not a primary food source at this time.

Key Concept: Citadel Preservation, Citadel Construction Effort, Citadel’s Historical Context

b) They had substantial knowledge of material science and efficient resource management.

[Solution Description] The usage of gypsum mortar indicates a high level of understanding of construction materials that provide water resistance, which suggests significant advancements in their engineering skills. This implies not only expertise in selecting appropriate materials but also effective resource allocation for public utility structures, reflecting an organized societal structure focused on long-term urban planning.

Key Concept: Material Distribution

c) Large urban centers like Mohenjodaro

[Solution Description] Rare objects made of valuable materials were typically concentrated in large settlements such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa, indicating their significance in trade and culture.

Key Concept: Interpretation Challenges

c) Undeciphered script

[Solution Description] One major challenge in interpreting Harappan seals is the undeciphered script used on many of these artefacts. Despite being richly engraved with symbols, the meaning and language of the inscriptions remain unknown, posing difficulties for archaeologists in understanding their exact significance.

Key Concept: Site Identification

d) Delhi

[Solution Description] Major Harappan sites include Rakhigarhi, Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Ganweriwala. Delhi is not considered a major Harappan site.

Key Concept: Crop Cultivation

d) Wheat and barley

[Solution Description] Evidence from Harappan sites suggests the use of oxen for ploughing, which was suitable for cultivating certain grains. Wheat and barley are among the common grains found at Harappan sites and were likely cultivated using this method.

Key Concept: Causes of Decline

c) Climatic change

[Solution Description] Among the various causes proposed for the decline of the Harappan civilization, climatic change is often suggested. This theory posits that shifts in climate could have led to agricultural difficulties or natural disasters which undermined the stability of this ancient society.

Key Concept: Evolution of Civilisation, Real-World Application

b) Gradual improvement in agriculture and technology led to surplus production.

[Solution Description] The transition from early farming communities to the Mature Harappan phase was characterized by gradual internal transformations that included advancements in agricultural practices and technological innovations. As these communities became more organized, they improved irrigation systems and crop variety, leading to surplus production which allowed for urbanization and specialization of labor. Additionally, trade networks expanded due to this surplus, encouraging economic growth and cultural development.

Key Concept: Utilitarian vs. Luxury

b) Material and complexity

[Solution Description] Utilitarian artefacts are typically distinguished from luxury artefacts by their materials and complexity. Utilitarian items are often made from common materials like pottery or stone and serve practical purposes, whereas luxury items like gold ornaments are crafted with rarer materials and intricate design for aesthetic or ceremonial use.

Key Concept: Harappan Sites

c) Mohenjodaro

[Solution Description] Major Harappan sites include Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Dholavira.